A thousand years represent half of Europe’s history since the advent of Christian-rooted civilization. It is an immense span of time shaped by the historical and cultural developments of Longobard civilization—which, as recognized by UNESCO, continued to exert an influence well into the following millennium. Viewed in this light, the economic trends observed during this period are significant.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

• In the Lower Elbe region, the presence of the Longobards has been analyzed with reference to the period spanning from the 1st century BC to 400 AD—an era defined by the Swedish archaeologist Oscar Montelius as the "Roman Iron Age." During this time, the local economy was one of subsistence, where agricultural production, hunting, and fishing were aimed at meeting the family's basic needs (food and clothing). Gradually, a lifestyle based on mere survival gave way to an economy centered on the accumulation of food stocks; this, in turn, necessitated armed protection for these valuable reserves, thereby driving an enhancement of the tribe's military capabilities. These new circumstances led the Longobards to assume a position of dominance over the subjugated indigenous populations, marking the initial phase of cultural blending and the true emergence of the *Gens Langobardorum*. Subsequently, deteriorating climatic conditions—and the resulting food scarcity—prompted the Longobards to seek new lands, thereby triggering the first migration phase attested by archaeological evidence.
• Along the routes of Pannonia two fundamental phenomena unfolded: a second phase of cultural integration and a process of aligning with Romano-Byzantine institutions. This was a period of profound transformation during which the Longobard ruling class consolidated its leadership through successful military engagements and the subsequent initiation of marriage alliances with the dynasties of the region's most important peoples—the Rugians, Heruli, and Gepids, followed by the Franks and Bavarians. Horse breeding intensified—a key factor in military supremacy—complemented by the technical innovation of the stirrup (adopted from the Avars), which enhanced archers' shooting capabilities by providing greater stability in the saddle. Contact with the Romano-Byzantine world expanded administrative and economic knowledge, introduced them to Arian Christianity, and shaped a new economic and political orientation. Ultimately, a major new power emerged here; pressured by the proximity of the formidable Avars, it needed to carve out its own position on the European stage.
• Target: Italy. The war between the Byzantine Empire of the East and the Ostrogoths—who had established their rule in Italy—had seen the Longobards fighting alongside imperial troops. With the Ostrogoths defeated and the Empire preoccupied in the Middle East, a major opportunity arose for the Longobard power to secure its own *Lebensraum* (living space). In their new territory, the Longobards adopted new strategic approaches. They took over pre-existing centers of power in major cities, sometimes using them as residences. However, in terms of settlement, they favored areas outside the cities, where armed groups (*arimannie*) and family units (*farae*) established themselves—either in pre-existing Roman villas or in locations (often of strategic importance) where new settlements were created.
• Economic revival – The economy, which had severely deteriorated during the final days of the Western Empire and the subsequent Gothic War, gradually began to recover. The Longobards relieved tenant farmers of heavy Byzantine taxation; revitalized craftsmanship by incorporating their own traditional products into metalworking; stimulated trade—including international commerce; and granted extensive privileges to various ecclesiastical institutions. Supported by the Longobard aristocracy, the activities of monasteries and abbeys fostered the cultivation of new lands, drove a revival in agricultural production, and spurred the further development of trades and crafts. Commercial exchange and trade—including river-based transport—intensified, while new artisan and merchant classes emerged. This picture of general socio-economic growth allows us today to view the contribution of the *Gens Langobardorum* to history in a light that extends far beyond the conventional focus on military campaigns and armed conflict.

ACTIVITIES

• Elbe Area – Activities linked to the initial subsistence economy included ploughing, sowing, and gathering forest products, as well as clearing woodland, processing raw materials—such as wood, hides, clay, stone, and the scarce metals available—and producing ceramic objects (primarily vessels and other containers). Most larger metal objects were still made of bronze. Imports from the Roman Empire increased from the time of Augustus onwards. These acquisitions included glass vessels, ceramic tableware, brooches, statuettes, and various ornaments that enhanced the owner's prestige. As for weaponry, throughout much of this historical period—characterized by a scarcity of metal—weapons were fashioned from lightweight wood, wicker, and leather. Women were responsible for working with wool and hemp, while carpenters and tanners produced agricultural tools and processed hides.
• Pannonian region – Alongside the growing power of the Longobard peoples, the cultivation of land was abandoned, and the domestic production of rural pottery disappeared, replaced by advanced wheel-thrown ceramics decorated with stamped motifs. Access to a wider range of raw materials enabled the development of many new types of production and the emergence of new artisan categories: potters, blacksmiths, and highly skilled goldsmiths. At the same time, as trade in refined Byzantine goods—such as glassware, bronzes, worked gold, fabrics, and carpets—flowed along the Danube, the quality of metal weapon production also improved.
• Italian region – The 500-year Longobard presence on the Italian peninsula saw the establishment of new ideals regarding political life (the organization of power), social life (the consolidation of a wealthy, dominant class of lords), and the economy (with professional and commercial classes amassing significant wealth). Ancient Rome had featured *collegia* (or *corpora*), associations of individuals sharing the same trade or function. These were "networks"—sometimes linked to specific religious rites—that safeguarded the interests of artisans and merchants while providing assistance to members and their widows. References to such associations abound in the Longobard era. During the time of Pope Gregory I (the Great), for instance, certain guilds persisted: soap-makers in Naples (a trade the Longobards also developed in Piacenza), dyers and market gardeners in Rome, and fishermen in Ravenna. With a more direct link to the Longobards, others emerged in Pavia, Piacenza, and Verona: *navicularii* (boatmen), *pistores* (millers), *corarii* (leather workers), and *monetarii* (involved in high-quality metalwork at mints authorized by the royal court of Pavia). The craft of weaving remained consistently in female hands.

The *Maestri Comacini* (Masters of Como) - Mentioned in the Edict of Rothari (643), they deserve a separate discussion. They were highly specialized experts in the building arts, celebrated not only as master builders but also as masons, stucco workers, and artists. Their activity during the Longobard period was so intense that a specific schedule of fees was established to determine their remuneration for various types of work. Likely heirs to Roman techniques, they were precursors to the Longobard Romanesque style, operating primarily across the Pre-Alps—in Como, Pavia, and present-day Canton Ticino (then part of the Seprio region)—but also in the Marche, Umbria, and Lazio. Over time, some even ventured as far as Germany, Denmark, and Sweden. Their artistic mastery found expression in the depiction of animal figures and complex interwoven plant motifs. Having organized themselves into a confraternity, they were, ultimately, the guardians of the "secrets" of classical building craftsmanship.

The scarcity of documents from the Early Middle Ages may prevent us from identifying a wider range of such evidence; yet the fact remains that, in the 12th century, we still find—in Italian and French cities and elsewhere—remnants of ancient trades (bakers, boatmen, leatherworkers, soap-makers, and moneyers) that remained directly dependent on the king, count, or bishop. These operated within the framework of *ministeria* or trades, occupying a position of subordination to public authorities that mirrored the guilds of the late Imperial era

FOOD CULTURE

The various stages of the Longobard migration were accompanied by changes in dietary habits, driven by the resources available in the occupied territories and by encounters with other culinary traditions.

• The early centuries – Looking at the first centuries AD, the scant evidence provided by classical literature offers little detail regarding the dietary habits of Germanic peoples. References are made to cereals, various roots, vegetables, and wild forest fruits—gathering these being primarily a task for women. There was more significant reliance on pastoral products—meat, milk, and cheese—which were mainly produced by men. Hunting in vast forests and fishing were separate matters, activities generally reserved for men. Pork and chicken were the most commonly consumed meats, whereas beef was less frequent, partly because cattle were more valuable for hauling loads and working the fields. As for fish (such as cod and herring), it was a common part of the diet among Nordic populations. One distinctive element stands out in this general picture: the primary cooking fat—linked to nomadic and pastoral culture—was derived from animal sources (lard and pork fat).
• In Italy – Upon arriving in Italy, the Longobards encountered a vastly different culinary culture: one based on olive oil, which was tied to Latin-Mediterranean civilization, light, and the sacred. However, in early medieval Europe, animal fats were more widely used than oil; the latter was reserved for the wealthy, as well as for use in monasteries and sacred rituals.

In this regard, it is worth noting the Longobard preference for raising pigs in a semi-wild state within forests—a practice that continues today in the cork oak woods of Monte San Biagio in southern Lazio. Considering the dietary preferences of the era, there was a noted fondness for bold, hearty flavors—traces of which persist in certain local traditions: in Ceppaloni (in the Benevento area), the white truffle—traditionally linked to the Longobards—is celebrated; meanwhile, the use of horseradish—an ingredient symbolizing the Longobard presence—is widespread in other southern regions as well as in Northern Italy.

• Culture of oil and animal fat – Throughout much of the Longobard period in Italy, another distinction set the two "schools" apart: animal fat predominated in the regions of Northern Italy, whereas the southern regions favored olive oil. Indeed, during the final stages of the southern principalities, interest in olive oil was rekindled; it experienced a rapid resurgence and maintained widespread popularity—a product whose extraordinary health benefits are recognized by modern science.
• Wine and beer – Regarding the preferred beverages in Europe during the first millennium, the consumption of beer in Northern Europe and wine on the Italian peninsula is a given.